[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":206},["ShallowReactive",2],{"supplement-phosphatidylserine":3,"supplement-article-titles":166},{"supplement":4,"related":63},{"slug":5,"name":6,"aliases":7,"categories":10,"tagline":12,"evidenceGrade":13,"evidenceSummary":14,"dose":15,"timing":21,"mechanism":22,"description":23,"effects":24,"safety":34,"sideEffects":35,"interactions":38,"references":40,"relatedCalculators":53,"relatedArticles":56,"relatedSupplements":59,"lastVerified":62},"phosphatidylserine","Phosphatidylserine",[8,9],"PS","soy lecithin phosphatidylserine",[11],"nootropic","A membrane phospholipid with decent aging-memory data — much of it from a bovine-derived form nobody sells anymore.","C","Trials in age-related memory decline showed consistent benefit, but the strongest used bovine-cortex PS, since replaced by soy-derived PS with weaker, more mixed results. Cortisol-blunting after exercise has small supporting trials.",{"low":16,"high":17,"unit":18,"label":19,"frequency":20},100,300,"mg","100 mg three times daily (300 mg\u002Fday) in the memory trials","split with meals","Split across meals. For the exercise-cortisol use, doses were taken daily for 10+ days rather than acutely","Phosphatidylserine is a phospholipid concentrated in the inner leaflet of neuronal membranes, where it supports receptor function, neurotransmitter release, and signaling-protein docking. Supplementation aims to support membrane composition as PS synthesis declines with age; it also modestly blunts the HPA-axis cortisol response to stress.","Phosphatidylserine has one of the stranger evidence stories in the nootropic aisle: the compound stayed the same, the source changed, and the evidence quality changed with it.\n\nThe original trials, mostly from the 1980s and 90s, used PS extracted from bovine cortex and produced consistent improvements in memory and daily cognitive function in older adults with age-related decline — enough that PS retains one of the few FDA-permitted qualified health claims in the cognitive space (with the FDA’s own caveat that the evidence is limited). Then mad-cow disease ended bovine sourcing, the industry switched to soy-derived PS, and the newer trials with the replacement form have been fewer and more mixed: some positive in elderly subjects with lower baseline function, others null. Whether the difference is the molecule’s fatty-acid composition or just smaller, weaker studies is unresolved — which is precisely why the overall grade sits at C despite the promising early record.\n\nThe second, smaller use case is sports-adjacent: several short trials found that 600-800 mg daily blunted the cortisol spike after intense exercise, and a small golf-performance study suggested reduced stress effects. Interesting, under-replicated, and dose levels above the usual memory protocol.\n\nAs a purchase, PS is unusually straightforward on safety — it is a phospholipid your body makes and your diet contains, side effects in trials were limited to occasional insomnia and stomach upset at high doses, and the standard protocol is 100 mg three times daily. The buying advice writes itself from the history: what is on shelves today is soy- or sunflower-derived PS, so calibrate expectations to that evidence base — plausible support for aging memory, thin support for anyone young and healthy — rather than to the bovine-era headlines.",[25,28,31],{"effect":26,"grade":13,"note":27},"Improves memory in age-related decline","strongest data from the discontinued bovine form",{"effect":29,"grade":13,"note":30},"Blunts post-exercise cortisol","600-800 mg\u002Fday in small trials",{"effect":32,"grade":33},"Enhances cognition in healthy young adults","D","Very safe profile at studied doses; PS is an endogenous phospholipid. Soy-derived products are the norm — relevant only for severe soy allergy, as the phospholipid fraction is essentially protein-free.",[36,37],"Insomnia at high doses","Stomach upset",[39],"Theoretical additivity with cholinergic medications; flag to your doctor if you take cognition-affecting prescriptions.",[41,47],{"authors":42,"year":43,"title":44,"journal":45,"url":46},"Glade, M. J., & Smith, K.",2015,"Phosphatidylserine and the human brain","Nutrition","https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fj.nut.2014.10.014",{"authors":48,"year":49,"title":50,"journal":51,"url":52},"Kato-Kataoka, A., et al.",2010,"Soybean-derived phosphatidylserine improves memory function of the elderly Japanese subjects with memory complaints","Journal of Clinical Biochemistry and Nutrition","https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.3164\u002Fjcbn.10-62",[54,55],"metabolic-age","pss-10",[57,58],"biological-vs-chronological-age","exploring-biomarkers",[60,61],"citicoline","ginkgo-biloba","2026-08",[64,114],{"slug":60,"name":65,"aliases":66,"categories":69,"tagline":70,"evidenceGrade":71,"evidenceSummary":72,"dose":73,"timing":77,"mechanism":78,"description":79,"effects":80,"safety":90,"sideEffects":91,"interactions":95,"references":96,"relatedCalculators":109,"relatedArticles":111,"relatedSupplements":112,"lastVerified":62},"Citicoline",[67,68],"CDP-choline","cytidine diphosphate-choline",[11],"A choline source that doubles as a membrane-repair substrate, with respectable trial support for attention and memory.","B","Randomized trials show improved episodic memory in older adults and better attention at 250-500 mg\u002Fday. Effects in healthy young adults are smaller and less consistent.",{"low":74,"high":75,"unit":18,"frequency":76},250,500,"once daily","Morning or midday, with or without food. Some users find late doses mildly stimulating","Citicoline splits into choline and cytidine, which the brain reassembles into phosphatidylcholine — the main phospholipid of neuronal membranes — while the choline also feeds acetylcholine synthesis. It thus supplies both a neurotransmitter precursor and a membrane-repair substrate in one molecule.","Citicoline occupies a middle tier of the nootropic world that deserves more attention than it gets: cheaper claims get more marketing, flashier compounds get more forum posts, but citicoline quietly has some of the better randomized-trial support in the category.\n\nIts dual mechanism is what distinguishes it from plain choline supplements. Once absorbed it splits into choline and cytidine; the brain uses the pair to synthesize phosphatidylcholine, the structural phospholipid that neuronal membranes are largely built from, while the choline fraction also supports acetylcholine — the neurotransmitter most tied to attention and memory. You are supplying both a building material and a signaling precursor.\n\nThe trial record concentrates in two places. In older adults with age-associated memory decline, randomized controlled trials — including a well-run 2021 study — found improved episodic memory over 12 weeks at 500 mg daily. In attention, trials in both older and younger adults have found measurable improvements at 250-500 mg, though the younger-adult effects are subtler and less consistently replicated. For stroke recovery, where citicoline spent decades as a prescription drug in Europe and Japan, the largest modern trial came back null — worth knowing as context for older enthusiastic claims.\n\nAs a practical matter citicoline is easy to use well. The studied doses are 250-500 mg once daily, tolerability in trials has been excellent, and it pairs sensibly with regimens that increase acetylcholine demand. The honest framing: for adults noticing early memory slippage it has genuine, replicated support; for a sharp 25-year-old seeking an edge, expect something between subtle and nothing. That gradient — clear benefit where there is a deficit to repair, diminishing returns at a healthy baseline — is the recurring pattern across evidence-based nootropics, and citicoline illustrates it cleanly.",[81,84,87],{"effect":82,"grade":71,"note":83},"Improves episodic memory in older adults","500 mg\u002Fday over 12 weeks",{"effect":85,"grade":71,"note":86},"Improves attention","smaller effects in healthy young adults",{"effect":88,"grade":33,"note":89},"Aids post-stroke recovery","largest modern trial (ICTUS) was null","Excellent tolerability in trials at studied doses, including in elderly populations; decades of pharmaceutical use in Europe and Japan provide a long safety record.",[92,93,94],"Headache","Insomnia when taken late","GI upset (uncommon)",[],[97,103],{"authors":98,"year":99,"title":100,"journal":101,"url":102},"Nakazaki, E., et al.",2021,"Citicoline and memory function in healthy older adults: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial","Journal of Nutrition","https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1093\u002Fjn\u002Fnxab119",{"authors":104,"year":105,"title":106,"journal":107,"url":108},"Grieb, P.",2014,"Neuroprotective properties of citicoline: facts, doubts and unresolved issues","CNS Drugs","https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1007\u002Fs40263-014-0144-8",[110,54],"sleep",[57],[113,5],"bacopa-monnieri",{"slug":61,"name":115,"aliases":116,"categories":120,"tagline":121,"evidenceGrade":33,"evidenceSummary":122,"dose":123,"timing":128,"mechanism":129,"description":130,"effects":131,"safety":141,"sideEffects":142,"interactions":145,"references":148,"relatedCalculators":161,"relatedArticles":163,"relatedSupplements":164,"lastVerified":62},"Ginkgo Biloba",[117,118,119],"ginkgo","maidenhair tree","EGb 761",[11],"The best-selling brain herb in history — and the one whose biggest, best trials came back empty.","The 3,000-person GEM trial found no effect on dementia prevention or cognitive decline, and meta-analyses in healthy adults find no cognitive enhancement. Only symptomatic use in existing dementia retains mixed support.",{"low":124,"high":125,"unit":18,"label":126,"frequency":127},120,240,"120-240 mg\u002Fday of EGb 761 standardized extract","split into two doses","With meals, split morning and midday — relevant only if you use it despite the evidence","Standardized ginkgo extract contains flavone glycosides and terpene lactones with antioxidant, mild vasodilatory, and platelet-activating-factor-inhibiting actions. The proposed cognitive pathway — improved cerebral blood flow — is measurable, but has not translated into cognitive outcomes in large trials.","Ginkgo is in this directory as much for calibration as for recommendation: it is what a failed nootropic looks like after the good studies are in, and it is still one of the best-selling herbal supplements in the world.\n\nThe decisive evidence is unusually strong for a supplement, which is exactly the problem. The Ginkgo Evaluation of Memory study randomized over 3,000 older adults to 240 mg of the pharmaceutical-grade EGb 761 extract or placebo and followed them for a median of six years. Ginkgo prevented neither dementia nor cognitive decline — not overall, not in any subgroup. A companion analysis found no effect on the trajectory of memory, attention, or executive function. For healthy younger adults, meta-analysis of the enhancement literature reaches the same verdict: no convincing effect on memory, attention, or executive function.\n\nWhat survives is narrow: in people who already have dementia, some European trials of EGb 761 report modest symptomatic benefits, and regulatory bodies in parts of Europe still permit that use. Tinnitus and peripheral-circulation claims sit on similarly mixed, low-quality evidence. None of this transfers to the healthy adult buying ginkgo at the pharmacy to stay sharp.\n\nGinkgo also carries a genuinely important interaction: it inhibits platelet-activating factor, and case reports of bleeding events — including alongside anticoagulants like warfarin — are numerous enough that surgeons routinely ask patients to stop it pre-operatively. A supplement with real bleeding risk and no demonstrated benefit in its flagship use is an easy call. The reason to keep the entry is the pattern it teaches: mechanism plausibility plus centuries of tradition plus early small positive trials can all coexist with a definitive null once someone funds the large, long study. Spend the money on sleep instead.",[132,135,138],{"effect":133,"grade":33,"note":134},"Prevents dementia or cognitive decline","GEM trial: definitive null over 6 years, n>3000",{"effect":136,"grade":33,"note":137},"Enhances cognition in healthy adults","meta-analyses find no effect",{"effect":139,"grade":13,"note":140},"Improves symptoms in existing dementia","mixed European trials of EGb 761","Generally well tolerated as a standardised leaf extract, but bleeding risk matters with anticoagulants, antiplatelet drugs, or surgery; discuss stopping it with the surgical team. Avoid during pregnancy because safety is uncertain and bleeding or early-labor concerns have been reported. Raw ginkgo seeds, unlike the leaf extract, are toxic.",[92,143,144],"GI upset","Increased bleeding tendency",[146,147],"Do not combine with anticoagulants or antiplatelet drugs (warfarin, aspirin, clopidogrel) without medical supervision.","May reduce the effectiveness of some anticonvulsants.",[149,155],{"authors":150,"year":151,"title":152,"journal":153,"url":154},"DeKosky, S. T., et al.",2008,"Ginkgo biloba for prevention of dementia: a randomized controlled trial (GEM study)","JAMA","https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1001\u002Fjama.2008.683",{"authors":156,"year":157,"title":158,"journal":159,"url":160},"Laws, K. R., Sweetnam, H., & Kondel, T. K.",2012,"Is Ginkgo biloba a cognitive enhancer in healthy individuals? A meta-analysis","Human Psychopharmacology","https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1002\u002Fhup.2259",[162,54],"ascvd",[57,58],[5,165],"omega-3",{"\u002Fblog\u002Fa1c-blood-sugar-guide":167,"\u002Fblog\u002Fascvd-heart-risk-guide":168,"\u002Fblog\u002Fbiological-vs-chronological-age":169,"\u002Fblog\u002Fcaffeine-half-life-sleep":170,"\u002Fblog\u002Fcalorie-deficit-guide":171,"\u002Fblog\u002Fcode-plunge-healthspan":172,"\u002Fblog\u002Fexploring-biomarkers":173,"\u002Fblog\u002Ffish-oil":174,"\u002Fblog\u002Fftp-functional-threshold-power":175,"\u002Fblog\u002Fgarmin-instinct-e-vs-instinct-3-vs-fenix-e":176,"\u002Fblog\u002Fgrip-strength-longevity":177,"\u002Fblog\u002Fheart-rate-training-zones":178,"\u002Fblog\u002Fhow-strong-am-i":179,"\u002Fblog\u002Fhydration-and-performance":180,"\u002Fblog\u002Fintermittent-fasting-evidence":181,"\u002Fblog\u002Fmagnesiumthreonate":182,"\u002Fblog\u002Fmenstrual-cycle-vital-sign":183,"\u002Fblog\u002Fmetabolic-age-explained":184,"\u002Fblog\u002Fnutrition-basics":185,"\u002Fblog\u002Foura-ring-4-vs-whoop-5":186,"\u002Fblog\u002Fpeptides-what-the-evidence-actually-shows":187,"\u002Fblog\u002Fpregnancy-weight-gain-guide":188,"\u002Fblog\u002Fprotein-for-muscle-growth":189,"\u002Fblog\u002Frace-time-prediction":190,"\u002Fblog\u002Fringconn-gen-2-vs-oura-ring-4-vs-galaxy-ring":191,"\u002Fblog\u002Fsamsung-galaxy-watch-ultra-2-vs-apple-watch-ultra-4":192,"\u002Fblog\u002Fsarcopenia-muscle-loss":193,"\u002Fblog\u002Fsleep-optimization":194,"\u002Fblog\u002Fstrength-training-fundamentals":195,"\u002Fblog\u002Funderstanding-bmr-tdee":196,"\u002Fblog\u002Funderstanding-body-composition":197,"\u002Fblog\u002Fusing-melatonin":198,"\u002Fblog\u002Fvdot-running-training":199,"\u002Fblog\u002Fvitamind":200,"\u002Fblog\u002Fvo2-max-guide":201,"\u002Fblog\u002Fwearable-health-tracking":202,"\u002Fblog\u002Fwhoop-mg-vs-whoop-5":203,"\u002Fblog\u002Fwhoop-vs-garmin-cirqa-vs-fitbit-air-vs-amazfit-helio":204,"\u002Fblog\u002Fwilks-vs-dots-powerlifting":205},"A1C: What Your Three-Month Blood Sugar Average Actually Predicts","Your 10-Year Heart Attack Risk: Making Sense of Your ASCVD Score","Biological Age vs Chronological Age: What Really Matters","Caffeine Half-Life: Why Your Afternoon Coffee Is Still Working at Midnight","Calorie Deficit 101: The Science of Sustainable Weight Loss","Cold Plunge and Healthspan: What the Evidence Actually Supports","Biomarkers: The Numbers That Actually Predict Your Health","Fish Oil and Omega-3s: What the Evidence Actually Supports","Functional Threshold Power: Why Cyclists Define Themselves by One Number","Garmin Instinct E vs Instinct 3 vs Fenix E: What Each Step Up Buys","Grip Strength: The Simplest Longevity Test in Medicine","Heart Rate Zone Training: A Complete Guide","How Strong Am I, Actually? Reading Strength Standards Honestly","Hydration and Performance: How Much Water Do You Really Need?","Intermittent Fasting: What the Research Actually Says in 2026","Magnesium Threonate: The Form That Actually Reaches Your Brain","Your Menstrual Cycle Is a Vital Sign — Here Is What to Track","Metabolic Age: What Your Smart Scale Is Actually Telling You","Nutrition Basics: Building a Solid Diet Without Overthinking It","Oura Ring 4 vs Whoop 5: Two Screenless Wearables, Two Different Philosophies","Peptides: What the Evidence Actually Shows","Pregnancy Weight Gain: The Range That Matters More Than the Number","Protein for Muscle Growth: How Much Do You Really Need?","How Fast Could You Run a Marathon? The Honest Math of Race Prediction","RingConn Gen 2 vs Oura Ring 4 vs Galaxy Ring: The Subscription Math","Galaxy Watch Ultra 2 vs Apple Watch Ultra 4: Your Phone Already Chose","Sarcopenia Starts Earlier Than You Think","Sleep Architecture: Understanding Your Sleep Cycles","Strength Training Fundamentals: Progressive Overload and One-Rep Max","BMR vs TDEE: Understanding Your Metabolism","Understanding Body Composition: Beyond the Scale","Melatonin: What It Actually Does and How to Use It Right","VDOT: Running Its Most Accurate Intensity System","Vitamin D: The Deficiency You Probably Have","VO2 Max Explained: The Gold Standard of Cardiovascular Fitness","Making Sense of Your Wearable Data: From Metrics to Action","Whoop MG vs Whoop 5.0: Is the ECG Worth $120 a Year?","Garmin Cirqa vs Amazfit Helio Strap vs Fitbit Air vs Whoop 5","Wilks vs DOTS: The Math Behind Ranking Powerlifters Fairly",1791499029069]